Pixel electrode while it is driven at ±15 VMicrocapsules: white particles (+) and black (−) in clear fluidGate and source lines out to the flex cableEach 84.7 µm pixel (300 ppi) sits under about two 40 µm microcapsules. At +15 V on its electrode the positive white particles drift up to the viewing side and the negative black ones down; at −15 V they swap. Moving them all the way takes 20 frames at 85 Hz, 235 ms. At 0 V nothing moves, so the page stays with no power. Partial updates are quick but leave a faint ghost of the last page (8% here); a flash drives every pixel to the opposite rail and back, which clears it. A capsule over two pixels splits between them. Shown slowed 4×, ←→ change it; only capsule size and pixel pitch are to scale.